In the beginning-that is, before the present era of school. the process of education was almost invariably conceived of in terms of an "art"_an aesthetic art of carving, shaping or producing an individual learner after and into an ideal model. Classical philosophers would have described it more aethetically as a method brought to bear on the individual or individuals with the intent of preparing them into modes of thought, action. taste and reflection compatible with the philosopher's (teacher's) view of what is exceIlent and acceptable. Social exceIlence. with the synonyms of tranquillity, orderliness, peacefulness, conformity with nature. and responsibility, was the ultimate goal in every philosopher's thinking; and the young generations were to be brought up in accordance with the prevailing mode of thinking and to be urged or even "shaped" to achieve this