Sokoine University

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The Perceived Importance of Communication Skills Courses among University Students: the case of two universities in Tanzania
(02-02-15) Komba, S. C.
This article is about the perceived importance of communication skills courses among Tanzanian university students. A total of 134 undergraduate students, randomly selected from two Tanzanian universities, were involved in this study. The study adopted a case study design in order to have an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The data were collected through interview schedules and they were analysed using thematic content analysis in which they were coded and classified according to themes generated from the responses. The findings revealed that communication skills courses were perceived by the majority of the respondents as important courses for the acquisition of communication skills needed in academic settings. It is recommended that universities should strive to improve the delivery of the courses by ensuring that both human and material resources are adequately available for the purpose of enabling students to benefit more from the courses
Assessment of maize (zea mays l.) damage and yield loss due to rodents in the field
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 200) Mulungu, Loth Sikwese
Assessment of damage and yield Joss due to rodents was carried out in maize fields in Morogoro. Tanzania. The most abundant rodents in these fields were the multimammate rats. Mastomys nalalensis. Spatial distribution of damage in maize fields was random for experimental fields planted with maize, located between other maize fields owned by farmers. Four sampling techniques viz: non stratified systematic row sampling, non stratified systematic z-sampling. stratified random square sampling, and non stratified simple random sampling for estimation of maize damage and yield losses due to rodents were compared in terms of precision and accuracy, and time spent for damage and yield loss estimations. The actual rodent damage in 15 maize fields was determined by counting damaged and undamaged maize plants at seedling stage and the actual yield loss was calculated. The actual damage varied from 17.3% to 82% during the period of study. The results showed clearly that non-stratified systematic row sampling is the most robust technique for assessing maize damage and yield loss due to rodents. A standard curve for sampling using this technique is provided. The relationship between rodent density and maize damage at seedling was determined. The best model for the data was determined using Akaike Information Criterium. The best model for the relationship is Sigmoid (r - 0.74; n = 44; p = 0.001). Variations occurred between the observed and predicted line. Damage was low or high depending on the amount of rainfall after planting. Maize seed planting followed by heavy rainfall suffered lower damage than when rainfall was poor, due to inability by rodents to locate the planted seeds. Rodent damage and the resultant yield loss are positively correlated, but only in years with well distributed rainfall. Results from model simulations showed that it is more profitable to control rodents in the fields in February and November or February and October than any other month combinations. This calendar approach for rodent control seems to be most appropriate for the Tanzanian maize growers.
Epidemiology and control of bovine fasciolosis and schistosomosis in the Southern highlands of Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture., 201) Makundi, Asanteli Eliangikundi
The main purpose of this study was to determine if anthelmintic treatment of early patent primary fasciolosis and schistosomosis would prevent development of acute disease and would improve productivity of calves which continue grazing high potential natural transmission areas, without causing unwanted side effects or interfering with the development of immunity. Aspects of transmission biology and host parasite relationship were also investigated. Field studies, including cattle and snails, were performed at Lulanzi dairy farm where the trematode infections were highly prevalent. In addition experimental Schistosoma bovis infections were carried out in confined calves. The results from snail studies showed that Bulinus natalensis was the most abundant freshwater snail, which was responsible for the transmission of Schistosoma bovis mainly towards the end ofthe rainy season. Results ofthe field study, where cattle were naturally exposed, showed that acquisition of trematode infections was gradual. It took five months for the peak egg excretion to be reached, followed by a gradual decline to a very low level. Both triclabendazole and praziquantel drugs were highly efficacious and reduced Fasciola and Schistosoma worms by 100% and 95.6% respectively; while for S. bovis faecal and tissue eggs the reduction was 98.9% and 79-96%, respectively. Treatment kept the faecal egg excretion of both parasites species at a very low level for more than seven months and did not affect the development of immunity. Deterioration of the body weights pathological lesions, mainly fibrosis of the liver, were observed in the treated experimentally infected animals than in the untreated ones. However, no clinical and haematological parameters were only seen during the dry season and it was more severe in the untreated compared to the treated, challenged calves. More severe iii signs were associated with such changes and there was a gradual resolution of the pathological lesions. In the experimental S. bovis infections it was shown that, along the small intestine, eggs were mainly deposited in the anterior part at week seven, in the central part at week 18 and evenly distributed at week 32 post infection. The key findings from the present study are that B. natalensis for the first time was proved to transmit S. bovis and that such an infection occurred in the snails that had an existing amphistome infection. The animal studies have demonstrated that natural Fasciola and Schistososma infections in cattle are mainly sub-clinical and their impact is seen mainly during the dry season when feed supply is limited. Although treatment of early infections transiently causes additional liver fibrosis, treatment prevents development of acute disease and does not interfere with the development of immunity. Furthermore, treatment prevents further deterioration of the health of the cattle during the dry period. In addition, the observed reduction in faecal egg excretion has an epidemiological impact of reducing the transmission of these infections. In general, the present findings raise the possibility of strategic use of anthelmintics for preventing the development of acute trematode disease in young ruminants, improving their productivity and reducing the transmission intensity in endemic areas
Malnutrition and desease
(Freedom from Hunger Campaign, 1963) WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATIO
The first half of the twentieth century has witnessed three major revolutions. The political revolution has given self-government to nearly a third of the world's population and has brought their aspirations for a better life to the forefront of world attention. The revolution in communications has broken down the barriers of distance and language, and the dynamism of ideas can no longer be contained within the limits dictated by social privilege or political considerations. The demographic revolution has imparted to the challenge of poverty and want a new dimension.
Local taxation in Uganda, Kenya, and Zambia
(University of Illinois, 1975) Scovill, Mary Edith
This study examines the existing local government tax structures The taxes are then evaluated with respect in Uganda, Kenya, and Zambia. to their effectiveness in furthering central government development goals, and recommendations are offered for achieving more optimal tax structures. Some attention is given to the role of autonomous local governmental units in each nation's political and economic structure. Few studies have been conducted of local government taxation in African countries, yet activities of local governments can greatly affect a country's development process. Studying three countries rather than one allows for greater comparison of various taxes and methods, and by this approach, it is hoped each country can draw on the experiences of the other two in determining the efficacy of various tax structures. The major portion of this dissertation is concerned with describing and evaluating the taxes currently employed by local governments in the three countries. Historically, the major revenue source for local governments has been the graduated personal tax, a unique type of income tax levied in many African countries. most local units in Uganda. It is still the major tax for Other taxes examined are assessment rates (property taxes), cesses, licences, and school fees. Taxes are evaluated on the basis of revenue potential, progressivity, effect on resource allocation, and costs of collection. The effect of taxation on growth of GDP is discussed only superficially; growth of GDP is a major development aim of the three countries, but it is affected primarily by central rather than local government taxation. Since each of the countries is concerned with replacing expatriates with nationals in both industry and government, a tax structure that can be administered by citizens is desirable. Information for this paper was obtained from governmental records and publications and interviews with central and local government officials in each country. Certain taxes were found to be more effective than others in meeting each country's aims. cesses were found to be an undesirable tax. In general, Of major requirement is the necessity of designing tax structures to meet the specific needs of each individual country, rather than simply incorporating features from the tax structures of developed countries or other LDCs.
Factors affecting the consumption of working time and the strain on the worker in some
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1975) Harstela, Pertti
The purpose of the study was to formulate an ergonomic model for forest work to serve as frame of reference for theoretical and empirical analysis, to examine the correlations of independent variables in play in forest work such as human, conditions and working method variables with consumption of working time and the physical strain on the worker. The investigation was confined in the empirical material to the cutting of roll-seedlings and the lifting of seedlings in the nursery-, and to the cutting of pulpwood by two working methods, i.e. mediumheavy and heavy work. The final aim was to formulate and test hypotheses of forest work science, postulate new hypotheses and outline an overall theory on the basis of systems analysis. An additional special object was to study the application of the principle of comparative time study in an empirical material and to apply the same principle in pulse rate investigations. This is termed the principle of comparative work study. The work performance was illustrated by a system scheme (Fig. 1). The scheme comprised the following main groups of elements: worker’s inclination for work, working capacity, reflexes and instincts, decision process, environmental factors, working methods and habits, work performance, output, earnings, and effects on the worker. The model was made up parallclly from abstract and concrete concepts, the aim being to make it suitable for the set of concepts of the theory of work study and the level of theory formulation. The model included the feedback from the effects on the worker-sample element group to the worker’s qualities. The literature on forest work studies in which some correlations introduced in the model were investigated is reviewed in Chapter 23. Owing to the great number of output studies they were treated as an example. The greatest part of the research activity has been analysis of the relations between environmental factors — and of them primarily the work difficulty factors — and the work output. The previously outlined system formula is examined in Chapter 24 as a cybernetic, probabilistic system in which the elements as such were conceived to embrace complex linkages and to be of the black-box type. The information transfer of these sample elements was illustrated by only one channel and information was consequently analysed merely as a symbolical expression of space and event. The decision process and the effects of reflexes and instincts were examined as the self-regulatory mechanism of the model. Feedbacks were established both within the worker and between the worker and environment. Principles influencing the formulation of the theory' of work science were postulated on the basis of the general properties of the system, such as threshold values, correlations, the principles of isomorphism and homomorphism: — If a correlation proves to be significant it is relevant at least in the population represented by the material and possibly also in other populations. — On the other hand, if no significant correlation is established between some independent variables there may nevertheless be a significant correlation in some other population or after some threshold values. — Il is useful for development of the theory' to explain the trend of the correlations and the internal conformities to law and mechanism of the elements. — It is assumed hypothetically that the constancy of the relative per-worker working time and strain value is influenced by the difference between the worker’s capabilities that the working methods and working conditions require and by his attitude to the working methods under comparison and his experience. — model taken from nature through simplifications is the more servicable the more deterministic it is. — Empirical work study generally' observes coded messages by indirect means and it is therefore seldom possible to demonstrate direct physiological causal relationships; what results is explanations of the ”either-or” or ”both-and” type. The system description of the work was developed in Chapter 25 by hypothetical insertion in the model of elements formed by the set of concepts of work study principles (Fig. 2). The concepts are: speed of work, physical strain, ratio between physical strain and maximal performance, total strain during the working day, psychic strain, relative consumption of time, average consumption of time, deviation of consumption of time, average strain, deviation of strain, relative strain, and attitudes to work. The quantitative and abstract levels of the concepts of the model were studied using the M-67-meta theory. Fig. 3 shows the concept hierarchies and the measuring features of the concepts. In processing the measuring features for formulation of the theory in the empirical part, concepts of the same quantitativencss arc used which are sub-concepts of the high real theoretical concepts: the worker’s capacity' and inclination for work, effects on the worker, performance, output and environmental factors. Fig. 4 shows the processes as a being model: performance — output and performance — effects on the worker, the worker’s resources (capacity for work) and feelings (inclination for work) and working conditions (environment) which influence the interrelations of these processes. The Jiving organism state of equilibrium. It logical theories that if a was found to be a system which seeks to preserve a was assumed from reference to physiological and psychofactor causes a greater deviation in the equilibrium of the organism than the conditions of other factors, that factor dominates the behaviour of the organism. This theory was applied in the empirical part to explain the phenomena established. In the empirical part the effect was examined of different factors on the consumption of working time, the physical strain on the worker, and the application of certain work study principles in the nursery to the cutting of roJlseedlings, the lifting of pine seedlings and the logging of pulpwood in grapple piles alongside the strip road (working method 2) and a 4-m wide zone for which the bunch size required was reduced (working method 1). The material and the measurements made are described in Chapter 32. The most important results were as follows. Owing to the paucity of degrees of freedom which interfered with testing they were distributed into statistically significant correlations and hypothetical correlations: — Consumption of working time was explained significantly in regression analysis by so-called work difficulty factors, working method, moving speed which illustrates the speed of the work, the time of the working day, the ordinal number of the working day and some independent variables that portray the worker.
Dose-response relationships in a microneutralization test for foot-and-mouth disease viruses
(1977-05) Booth, J. C; Rweyemamu, M. M; Pay, T. W. F
Two-dimensional quantal microneutralization tests on foot-and-mouth disease viruses, in which neutralizing antibody activity was titrated against a serial range of virus doses, demonstrated a variety of dose-response curves some of which were rectilinear, others clearly curvilinear. Moreover, in the case of the non-linear responses obtained with some antisera, the shape of the curve was such that antibody titres recorded with doses of virus ranging from lCP-lO 5 TCD50 were closely similar. Studies were carried out on the effect of varying the con- ditions of the test on the shape of the dose-response curve: significant differences were obtained after treatment of the antiserum-virus mixtures with anti-species globulin, and when the test was assayed in cells of differing susceptibility to infection.
Microneutralization tests for serological typing and subtyping of foot-and-mouth disease virus strains
(1977-12) Rweyemamu, M. M; Booth, J. C; Head, Morwen; Pay, T. W. F
A microneutralization test for serotyping of FMD viruses is described. It is based on earlier observations by Booth, Rweyemamu & Pay (1978) that dose-response relationships in quantal microneutralizations often deviated from linearity. The typing test described therefore utilizes undiluted virus preparations. In about 90 % of samples a positive typing was obtained in contrast with about 50 % for the complement fixation test. The test was also found to be susceptible to minimal quantities of heterotypic viral contamination. For strain differentiation the microneutralization test was carried out as a checkerboard test. When compared with the complement fixation test it was found to be more specific. The necessity to utilize virus-neutralization test systems for comparing FMD virus strains particularly for the purpose of vaccine selection is emphasized. The two dimensional microneutralization test has been applied to a study of comparing FMDV vaccine strains for Europe, South America, the Middle East and East Africa.
Genetic interaction between phaseolus vulgaris and bean common mosaic virus with implications for strain identification and breeding for resistance
(Wageningen, 1978) Drijfliout, E.
DRIJFHOUT, 嚣 TEic Mus with implications for strain identi^-aHon^nd^breeding for resistance. RepJVerllJandbouwk. Onderz.) 872. ISBN 90 220 0671 9. (vii) + 98 p.. summaries. 仙*撷 , 2 加*4两加卅、 Aho: Doctoral thesis, 'Vageningen^ } Various strains of bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) occur in susceptible cultivars of bean. To compare compare these strains, a standard procedure for identification ;ind a set of dif- bean. To ferentiM cultivars were established. The differentials are representatives of 11 resistance Roups'determined groups, < ---------- --- by testing - of about 450 lx?an cultivars with 8 to 10 strains. The virus strains and isolates were classified into 10 pathogenicity groups and subgroups, so that 10 strains were distinguished and the others considered as isolates of those strains. Twelve differentials were intercrossed and their F, and tested with most of the strains for genetical analysis of resistance in bean. Seven genes were distinguished: a necrosis gene /, already known from the literature. 5 strain-specific resistance guncs be』, be」,bc・2, bc-22 and bc・3, and a strain-unspccific gene be*, complementary to the strain-specific ones. Genes hc-1 and he-12 were allelic, as were bc・2 and bc・2:. The 5 loci segregated independently or nearly so. The 4 strain-specific genes bc・l to hc-22 had a gcnc-for-gcnc relationship with 4 pathogenicity genes, likely to be present in the virus strains. Gene bc-3 had not been overcome by a corresponding pathogenicity gene. Two bean genotypes were developed with resistance to all known strains. Some implica tions for resistance breeding arc discussed. Free descriptors: Phaseolus vulgaris, common bean, bean common mosaic virus. BCM V, breeding for resistance, genetics of resistance, iiost 一 virus relationship, pathogenic varimion, screening for resistance, strain identification. This thesis will also be published as Agricultural Research Reports 872. ® Sc 血 Agricultural Publishing and Documentation ,Wageningen, 1978. No Part of this book may be r:r._. rint, micro- reproduced and/or published in any form, by print, photop film or any other means without wri -• written permission from the publishers.
Meat from goats in Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 1978) Kyomo, Martin Luther
The shortage of protein of high biological value in the tropics could be decreased by raising larger numbers of indigenous ruminant livestock, and of increasing off take and weight per animal destined for slaughter. In Tanzania, where there are about five million goats and their meat is already very popular, improvement of goats through better breeding, feeding and disease control methods could lead to a several-fold increase in the present annual production of 1.3 million goat carcasses. The paucity of data on which to base goat improvement methods was the major reason for undertaking this study. A comparison was made in reproductive performance, growth rate and carcass yield between the Tanzania indigenous goats and the Tanzania x Boer and the Tanzania x Kamorai goats. The total numbers of animals involved in the study, which was conducted between 1972 and 1976, inclusive, were 7 sires, 177 dams and 559 progeny. The study confirmed earlier untested theories that the Tanzania goat, which belongs to the East African breed type of goat, produces kids throughout the year. There were, however, peak periods in which more dams kidded than in other periods. The total amount of rain falling during a given period was the only environ mental factor affecting the time of conception of the dams (P < 0.001) . This relationship seemed to be an indirect one, in that more rain meant more forage growth-(ii) and availability and therefore better body condition of the dams. Better fed dams ovulate, conceive when mated, and maintain pregnancy to term more readily than underfed dams. The twinning rates and mortality of kids have been reported in the-thesis. The effects of year, sex, seasons and birth type, whether singles or twins, on weight at various ages have been reported. The slight superiority of castrates over the entire male kids in growth rate observed in this thesis calls for more studies to see if the hormonal patterns related to growth were different from those of animals of similar sexes in other domestic livestock. The heritability estimates for weight at birth, weaning, one year and 72 weeks of age were 0.7 ± 0.10, 0.14 ± 0.14, 0.07 ± 0.11 and 0.017 ± 0.16, respectively. The weight of kids could, for practical purposes on the farms, be predicted by the formula : Weight (in kg) = - 4.22 ± 0.15 .+ (0.00806 ± 0.00007 x Girth (in cm) x Length (in cm) . (R2 = 88.2%) The cold dressed carcass percentages of the Boer and Kamorai crossbred and Tanzania purebred kids were 45.57, 45.34 and 45.34 per cent, respectively. The areas of the eye muscle (Longissimus dorsi) measured on the 10th and 11th ribs of the male and castrated kids ranged between 11.77 and 14.27 square centimetres. The castrated kids had more total lean, fat and bone than the entire(iii) male kids. The heritability estimates for cold dressing percentage, total lean, total fat and total bone within the carcass were 0.7, 0.3, 0.04 and 0.4, respectively. It is concluded that this study has contributed to the knowledge on meat goat production characteristics in the tropics and will form a basis on which to plan the breeding and management of commercial meat goats in Tanzania.
Coffee in the economy of Tanzania and the implications of membership In the international coffee agreement
(1979) Msuya, M. Michael
We seek in this work to develop recommendations for policies that will enable Tanzania to enhance her gains from trade in coffee, in of the changing environment O’- orally. in the world coffee and economic scene We start in the first chapter with an introduction to the O/j^anian economy and identification of the place of coffee in this - z/r-omy. In the second chapter we review literature relating to the structure of the international coffee market, the commodity problem and justification for international market intervention in the form of the International Coffee Agreement (ICA). The third chapter is an attempt to assess, empirically, the effectiveness of the ICA on Tanzania’s gains, defined in terms of the agreement’s objectives as increased stability and progressively increasing trend in the real value and purchasing power of income derived from trade in coffee. We devote chapter four to a review of Tanzania’s fortunes in the ICA and the trends in world coffee production and consumption. Finally, in chapter five we review ongoing coffee programs and practices in Tanzania and develop the said policy recommendations based on the country’s experience as well as the current and expected market environ ment . Two sets of factors determine the extent to which Tanzania gains from its involvement in the world trade in coffee. First is the group of factors which, for purposes of the present study, we term endogenous factors. Within this group fall such factors as production policies, quality controls and management efficiency, all 1.2. of which factors are largely a function of voluntary actions of agents within the country’s economy. These factors could be government, industry, or grower-determined or - effected. The distinguishing trait is that they are to a large degree within the willful control of agents within the country’s economy. Distinct from this category of tors is the second set of factors, which we refer to as exogenous factors. In this category we include all factors, geographically domestic jr foreign to Tanzania, that are largely beyond the willful control of agents within the country’s economy. Under this category fall such factors as market prices, export quotas, changes in consumer demand and adverse weather conditions (be they domestic or foreign to the country). This second set of factors is further sub-divided into: (a) Exogenous factors that originate from man-made decisions and as such are subject to negotiations within the ICA or other multi lateral or bilateral framework, as would, for example, be the case with coffee export quotas within the ICA, and preferential market arrange ments between the European Economic Community (EEC) and the associated African countries, of which Tanzania is one. (b) Exogenous factors that originate from man-made decisions but whose occurrence is not negotiable. In this category are included such factors as changes in consumer demand, long-term changes in world production patterns, and technological advances affecting either or both production and consumption. (c) Phenomenal occurrences that may have their origins in man-3- made decisions or natural circumstances. Examples of these occurrences include extreme weather conditions such as serious frosts in Brazil, extreme monetary instability such as occurred at the beginning of this decide, and labor strikes affecting a major aspect of the world coffee - omy such as an extended longshoreman strike in major United SlsgU-.es coffee ports of entry. Before we start the intended discussion and analyses of the factors of concern in the present study, it is in order to outline some aspects of the historical and structural background to the Tanzanian economy and the way in which coffee and the commodity’s world trade fit into this economic framework. That is the subject of the first chapter.
The ecology of large herbivores in the Miombo woodlands of South East Tanzania
(The University of of Nairobi, 1979) Rodgers, William Alan
The studies described in this thesis arose from an ecological survey of part of the eastern side of the Selous Game Reserve in south east Tanzania from 1967 to 1975* The intensive study area contained two major, ecologically distinct, habitats, an area of tall grass miombo woodlahd and a smaller area of short grass scattered tree grassland. Several species of large grazing ungulate utilised thefce habitats, namely: buffalo, hartebeest, impala, sable, warthog, wildebeest and zebra* Seasonal changes in the environment such as the six month drought and widespread annual fires affect the pattern of habitat utilisation exhibited by each species. This thesis examines such utilisation and shows that each species has developed its own ecological and feeding strategies in order to maximise nutrient inputs and reproductive success in what is seasonally a harsh environment In many ways the miombo (Brachystegia) woodlands remain the least studied of the East African habitats This lack of data on the miombo in general and the Selous Game Reserve in particular means much of the thesis is taken up by descriptions of the physical and biotic environment of the study area. Following an introductory chapter the thesis is divided into three parts. Part one, with three chapters, describes the physical environment: geology, soil, climate, water and prehistory; the vegetation: community description, distribution and species composition, floristics and vegetation dynamics; and range factors of productivity and forage nutrient content Part two contains chapters on animal numbers, distribution patterns, feeding and nutrition and a chapter examining growth and reproduction as indices of population performance Part three concludes the thesis with a chapter reviewing the miombo woodlands and the Selous as a wildlife habitat and a final chapter discussing management policy for the Selous Game Reserve. The study area is low lying (100 - 700m asl) with a single rainy season from late November to early May (average 760mm p.a.) Despite a long hot dry season, surface water is relatively plentiful Habitat distribution is primarily controlled by geology and soil type with major modifications by fires and past human activity. The upland Karoo and post karoo sandstones give rise to infertile acidic red sandy soils which carry a climax-thicket formation These have been degraded into woodland by fire and settlement activity Lower down the drainage slope the flat Pleistocene river terrace of grits and sands has produced a hard alkaline sodic soil carrying short grass scattered tree grassland The drainage sump of recent alluvial clay carries tall floodplain grasses The vegetation is diverse, collections to date totalling over 1200 vascular plants including 150 grass species. The woodland vegetation shows strong affinities to the Zambezian flora,and the thicket, riverine and alkaline communities show affinities to the East African coastal flora o The thesis contains species lists and a vegetation community map. Fire has opened up the thickets producing tall grass woodlands of various types. Grasses, mainly Andropogonae, are coarse tussock perennials with very low nutritive values when dry* No burning allows the spread of woody and climbing species which engulf the grass layer and rapidly reduce grazing values* Late dry season fires reduce woody elements and plant diversities and leave coarse grass growth thoughout the dry season* Cooler early dry season fires maintain mixed woodland communities and a mixture of grass species and, where water tables allow, rapidly produce a flush of nutritious regenerating grass growth* Crude protein content of such growth can reach 20% although standing crop is low* The alkaline soils carry a short grass sward of mixed annual perennial species of high nutritive values in the rains* There is no flush after burning and dry season grazing values are low* Chapter 5 discusses techniques of animal census in detail* A vehicular ground sample census using fixed systematically placed transects was used for common ungulates* Rainy season densities on the short grass habitats are as follows: Impala 28*7/km2, wildebeest 27,2/km2, zebra l6*2/km^ and warthog 9*4/km2# Wildebeest and impala densities have remained unchanged for six years, zebra and warthog densities have increased significantly* Less detailed data are given for other species* Distribution data have been collected at several different scales from Tanzania wide, to the Selous, to the study area, to the different facets of a miombo valley-ridge catenary system* It is ‘shewn that 'salile *nd'‘L±ch’fcnrteins .'S* : ns hartebeest are restricted to tall grass woodland habitats, wildebeest and impala must have access to short grass areas in the rains and that buffalo, zebra and warthog, are more habitat tolerant but achieve higher densities on short grass habitats . Within the study area virtually all impala, warthog, wildebeest and zebra concentrate on the short grass areas in the rains, moving into the woodlands following the onset of burning Within the woodland habitat wildebeest and impala concentrate on the green flush of the valleys and avoid the unburnt areas and ridge tops. Sable and hartebeest are distributed throughout all categories and warthog and zebra are intermediate showing some selection of valley and green areas The onset of the November rains signals a return to the short grasslands Studies of feeding behaviour showed buffalo, hartebeest and wildebeest to be total grazers whilst sable and impala took significant proportions of browse in the dry season and warthog diet changed to perennial monocot roots and rhizomes. Feeding studies concentrated on wildebeest and impala and much data was obtained from post morterm analysis. By assuming that extrapolation of data from other large ungulate studies was unlikely to cause large relative errors it was possible to make estimates of protein and energy intakes and of theoretical nutrient needs for these two species. the rainy season both species had inputs greater than During theoretical requirements for maintenance, i e i positive nutritional balance. they were in As the dry season progressed T both male and female wildebeest which remained on the dry short grass habit entered a period of negative nutritional balance• However wildebeest moving to fresh flush in the woodlands were shown (albeit on less evidence) to maintain a positive balance. Impala at the onset of the dry season changed their diet to nutrient rich browse components and so maintained a positive nutritional balance. These two ! strategies of habitat change and dietary change have resulted in peak nutritional inputs at different times of year. Impala have peak inputs in September and wildebeest in i December periods. Onset of parturition coincides with these peak The nutritional load of gestation is minimal compared to that of lactation. Calving season therefore allows lactation and wearing of calves at the nutritional optimum time of year. Other species show different strategies, which allow a separation of niche space reducing competition for food resources Chapter eight shows that individual growth rate, body condition and fecundity rates are as high or higher than other populations in Africa., and that populations here are well adapted to the ecological conditions of this part of the Selous Game Reserve. This chapter discusses why the wildebeest population is stationary when nutrition is adequate, condition is good and fecundity is high. Predation by lion is put forward as a major limiting factor* The concluding chapters look at the miombo woodlands throughout Africa as wildlife reserves and suggest that only when tall grass woodlands are adjacent to other habitats such as short grassland or floodplains do animal densities reach levels high enough to warrant major conservation inputs* The importance of fire in providing dry season graze is stressed and fire management polices for the Selous are discussed* Past, present and future human impacts on the wilderness values of the Selous are examined and a plea is made for definite land use policy statements for south east Tanzania and the reserve*
Comparative effectiveness of group extension methods in village farming in till coastal zone of Tanzania
(University of Dar es salaam, 1979-07-01) Kauzeni, Athanas S.
This dissertation compares the effectiveness of three group—based agricultural extension methodsi (i) demonstra—tions together with formal scheduled group discussion meetings, (ii) formal scheduled group discussion meetings alone and (iii) informal unscheduled or general meetings or contacts that were applied in 24 villages of the coastal zone in Bagamoyo, Handeni, Korogwe, and I.Iorogoro Districts, Tanzania. economic, political, administrative, educational, and environmental factors that directly or indirectly affect the effectiveness of agricultural extension methods and the extension service in general. The aim of the study is: first, to identify the best or most effective group-based agricultural extension methods Secondly, to identify constraints to agricultural extension < methods and the extension service in general that render agricultural extension workers ineffective and consequently inhibit increased agricultural production. Third, the study aims at making recommendations that will help agricultural extension workers in villages to increase their communication effectiveness which will hopefully lead to increased agricultural production. meetings, (ii) formal scheduled group discussion meetings alone and (iii) informal unscheduled or general meetings or which conform to tire country’s policy for villagization as . ■’ * related to the prevailing economic and social conditions^. It examines social Historically the agricultural extension service has been understaffed, and most seriously under-educated (in basic education), and under-trained (in extension and agriculture ) • Inadequate training, particularly in the extension approach or methods, is alleged to be one of the main causes for ineffectiveness of agricultural extension workers and the extension service in general. The training given lacks understanding and proper emphasis, therefore does not produce extension workers able to communicate effectively Consequently with farmers. extension workers have apparently had a minor impact in inducing changes in farming. Five operational dependent variables used in measuring the effectiveness of the three group-based agricultural extension methods are: (i) Knowledge of recommended farming practices, (ii) Adoption rate of recommended farming Results of the study show that differences exist in effectiveness of the three group-based agricultural extension methods as stated in the hypotheses tested. Some of these differences are statistically significant, others are not. Of the three group-based agricultural extension methods studied, demonstrations together with formal scheduled group discussion meetings proved to be the most practices, (iii) Development increase of the village, (iv) Income per ha and (v) Income per man-day. effective. Formal scheduled group discussion meetings vzere second in effectiveness, and informal unscheduled general meetings or contacts v/ere last in effectiveness. The analytical methods used in arriving at these results include simple and multiple regression and analysis of variance. There are also differences between Districts in relation to the effectiveness of extension methods in respeet of the five operational variables. Some of these differences v/ere statistically significant, other were not. Districts differ in levels of performance in respect to nature of individual) but none of these differences between Districts are statistically significant. on average, statistically significant differences between communal and individual types of farming systems in respeet of the tv/o income variables under all three types of group-based extension methods. Several obstacles affect agricultural information communication in the coastal zone villages: These include poor basic education and professional training of agricultural extension workers, high illiteracy percentage level among farmers, inadequate structural organization of the extension service, poor supervision of village level extension workers, and economic and social disparity between villagers and extension workers. In order to improve effectiveness of the agricultural extension approach and the extension service as a whole, it is recommended that evaluation of the agricultural extension service, particularly extension methods, be made more often. Demonstrations and meetings should be the key educational tool of the extension workers in villages. The entire agricultural training programmes should bo reviewed to insure that relevant subjects have their duo emphasis in the syllabi. The number of trainees should be increased and only form IV and above with high passes in relevant subjects should be recruited in so far as adequate numbers are available. Village-level agricultural extension workers should be employees of villages. Research recommendations for villages should be accompanied by their economic aspects to make them complete and should be written in layman's language for extension workers and farmers to understand. Farmers should be required to adopt complete packages of recommendations for a maximum increase in agricultural production to the extent that they are econonioally viable. There is an urgent need for a socialist credit system to be established to serve villages* Refresher or in-service courses for junior and senior agricultural extension workers should be arranged annually or after every two years. Finally, an intensive political education campaign should be launched for villagers particularly village council members, to enlighten them on the meaning, demands, and relevanoo of socialism in their own context.
An economic analysis of the small-scale coffee-banana holdings in Moshi Rural. District, Tanzania.
(University of Nairobi, 1979-11) Msechu Adam R. M.
This study was undertaken with the major objectives of assessing resource availability and resource use by small-scale farmers in Moshi rural district of lanzania, with the view to identifying the critical constraints leading to low farm incomes in the area. In this respect, an attempt was made to find out whether the available resources could be re-allocated between- alternative uses in order to maximize total farm gross margins. A sample of 46 farms were surveyed from four villages in the district. The data were summarized and agregated to form a representative farm model for the area The empirical analysis of the input-output data included gross margin calculations of the important farm enterprises, and linear programming analysis, under the existing and improved technologies. The results of the survey showed that land was the most scarce resource. Farmers were also lacking important inputs and tools for most of their crop and livestock activities. The results of the fidndings in the empirical analysis, as well as experience, indicates that under the existing technology, farmers in the district were efficiently utilizing the available farm resources and that there was little potential for increasing farm incomes through re-organization of the current farms set—up. However, under mixed and improved technology farmers could greatly improve their farm incomes through greater intensity in use, improved methods of production, and raising productivity per unit area or animal. Under all the improved and mixed technology optimal farm plans, excess labour supply was revealed to be available in most months of the year on the farms. It was therefore, concluded and recommended that government in conjunction with other agricultural development institutions should strive to improve the quality and quantity of the extension staff. These institutions should also review the present heavy export-tax on coffee in order to make the crop more profitable to farmers. Research priority should be given to investigations on the coffee-banana inter-relationships as practiced by the small-scale farmers in the district. If farmers were to adopt the mixed and improved technologies optimal farm plans, the findings of the empirical analysis indicates that such optimal plans would generate excess labour supply on the small-holder farms which implicitly could profitably be employed through establishment of off—farm activities such as small scale indust ./es in the villages.
A parking systems analysis of factors that affect area and induction of cotton: A case study in Shinyanga regeon, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1980) Kajumulo, D .A .R
This study describes factors that affect area and production of cotton as part of the overall farming system for smallholders in Shinyanga Region, Tanzania.It involves as description of the characteristics of the existing farming systems and assessment of the production efficiency of the cotton producer. Based on farmer’s resources, priorities and production decision, plans to improve cotton production are studied simultaneously with the other crops in the systems and desirable improvements are suggested./ Primary data were collected from 50 randomly-selected farmers in the area for the 1976/77 and 1577/78 crop seasons.Direct programme planning was used to determine optimum resource allocation.Relations between specified variables were tested by means of Chi-square and correlation analyses. Two major types of farming systems were identified, namely (1) Larger farms with livestock which wore characterized by having more land in crops, slightly bigger families, use of ox-ploughs for land preparation, and much higher per capita income (Sh 710).These farms produced about twice the food they actually required for subsistence, and sold the surplus for cash, but had serious labour problems.(2) Smaller farms without livestock, characterized by less land in crops and use of hand hoes for land preparation.They produced 14 percent less protein and 4 percent less calories than required for subsistence based on PAO norms and had a very low per capita income (Sh 170).They made up over half of the farms. Based on these two types of farms, the study has developed feasible farming systems typical to the area which satisfy family food needs throughout the year and increase family incomes based on a more reasonable work schedule for each type and utilizing family labour only.They arc developed on the following assumptions!(1)Yields per ha of the common food items equal to 80 percent of those believed to be normal for the area so that the determined area for subsistence meets full family food needs in most years.(2) Family labour remaining after meeting subsistence requirements is used as required for optimum cash-crop combinations, (j) Net family incomes are calculated based on 1977/78 crop-year prices and 80 percent of yields as found for EIDHP. The crop which gives the highest net cash return per limiting-month man-day is considered since family labour in peak months is the limiting factor to increased production. For smaller farms without livestock, a cash crop combination of 0.8 ha of sorghum/groundnuts and 0.8 ha of late-planted cotton is suggested. This would give these farms a total net family income of Sh 1,590 or a per capita income of Sh 240, which is about one-third higher than present incomes. However, by hiring ox-ploughing services for lend preparation while school holidays for children staying at home were made to coincide with the critical work peak of weeding, fanners could improve their farming system by growing 1.9 ha of sorghum/groundnuts and 0.8 ha of late-planted cotton.This system would triple their net family income to Sh 3,120 or a per capita income of Sh 470. For larger farms with livestock, the optimum cash crop combination includes 3.1 ha of sorghum/groundnuts intercrop, 0.8 ha of late- planted cotton, and 0.6 ha of paddy, from which these farms likely would realize a total net family income of Sh 5,630 or a per capita income of Sh 790. This is about 10 percent higher than present, excluding returns from livestock. It is concluded therefore that if the aim is to increase farmer’s income, the crop which gives the highest net cash return per limiting month man-day after meeting subsistence requirements, namely sorghum/groundnuts intercrop, should be encouraged. From the Government point of view, (a) school holiday schedules for children staying at home should be made to coincide with the critical work peak of weeding, and (b) an increase by 35 percent over prices used in the systems analyses for cotton, while keeping those of other crops and inputs unchanged, would make cotton more profitable and increase the cash benefit/cost ratio to 3:1 to warrant the risk and costs of using fertilizers and insecticides. If producer prices of other crops and inputs increase simultaneously with -those of cotton, farmers will always be tempted to grow the most profitable crop relative to cotton. Research on cotton improvement should be considered not only for specified cotton operations but in relation to all crops of the systems, given the resources on typical individual farm units.
Socio-economic factors affecting small-holder tea production ;A case study of the Korogwe tea sub scheme,Tanga region
(SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE., 1980) LUPATU M. A
Tills thesis presents a case study of the Llorogwc tea sub-scheme in Tanga Region.It e:s?mines socio-economic factors affecting small holder tea production under the 1979 farming system. Fifty tea-growers were picked from a sampling frame covering1,500 smallholders using a stratified random sampling appro-.ch based on plot size of tea.The farmers were interviewed in August-October, Questionnaires used and method of data analysis are described.1979. An average farm family load 9 people eating at home and cultivated on average 2.3 ha, of which 42 percent was for cash and the balance was for food crops. Computed food production by a typical farm family was on average below family annual minimum requirements by 6percent of calories and 37 percent of protein in 1979.If families are to be self-sufficient, food production must be increased. On average, a farm family received Shs. 7,300 from crop sales in 1979, of which 42 percent vias from tea and 32 percent from cardamom.Effects of the following factors on tea production were studied: (l) Distance from tea farms to green-leaf buying centres.Daily pluckings were limited by the number of possible round-trips per day during buying hours. (2) Producer prices.Increased prices motivated farmers to pluck more in the short-run but transport to markets for the increase frequently was not available. (>)fertilizer distribution, which frequently was not satisfac tory. (4) As many tea bushes are immature, age in years had a statis- tically significant effect on yield of tea pex* ha. (5) Use of desirable husbandly practices and a proper plucking rate tended to increase yield per ha but an increase in tea area, fter allowing for other factors in the regression analysis, tended to reduce tea yield per ha.In an analysis of use of desirable husbandry practices, number of extension contacts was the most important single affecting variable. A third analysis indicated that area in cardamom was the most important single variable affec-ting total income per farm.Tea yield per ha, age of tea bushes in years and coffee area were also influencing..Two basic analyses run by linear programming indicate that: In plan 1, where each fanner was required to maintain the government 0.60 ha tea quota, the optimum plan was 17 percent more profitable than the 1979 farming system.Crops included were 1.1 ha of cardamom, the required 0.6 ha of tea, and two crops for subsistence, namely 0.4 lia of bananas and 0o6 ha of beans. Plan 2 allowed farmers to respond to direct economic influences.This was 13 percent more profitable than plan 1, with the same food crops and only cardamom (1.7 ha) included as a cash crop.both plans 1 and 2 based on combinations of low and high producer prices for tea, cardamom and coffee , respectively, is also described. Under all of the plans considered, available family labour is underutilized in most months. Thus, development of other sec tors oi* the economy to use this surplus labour v.nuld be highly desirable. The future development of cardamom depends largely on a limited external market dominated by India, the largest producer.requirement tint farmers maintain 0.60 ha of tea The looks rational as tea provides regular employment and income to farmers.Based on this analysis, either tea prices should be increased or cardamom prices reduced (or both) if tea is to be an economically- viable crop. Coffee was not profitable under the conditions speci-fied.Other features of the analysis indicate tint the 24 million kg target of made tea by 1981 in Tanzania looks unrealistic. Under the ejd-sting situations, tliis target may be reached by 1935 when tea bushes planted by 1976 become mature.viii
Economic analysis of acreage supply response under risk: the case of selected crops in Oklahoma
(Oklahoma State University, 1981-12) Mlay, Gilead Isaac
Modifications of small-farmer credit In the maisan 77 program of the Philippines
(1983) Octavio, Generoso G.
This study was conducted to determine possible reforms that may improve the Maisan 77 credit program. Specifically, it aimed to pinpoint suggestions that will reduce the net costs of lending and improve the financial and economic well-being of farmer-borrowers. To accomplish these objectives, survey data were used to specify and validate a liquidity-specified linear programming (LS-LP) model. Simulations of the model were made with variations in: (1) interest rate, (2) credit limit, and (3) mode of loan disbursement. 11 The effects of a break-even" rate of interest was given special focus since this is the rate of interest at which the credit program recovers its lending costs. The results of the simulations showed that: (1) The welfare losses of the farmer due to increases in interest rates can be offset by coordinated increases in the size of loan, thus, making the credit limit as more important to the farmer’s well-being than the rate of interest he has to pay. (2) Disbursement of program loans in cash only resulted in improved financial structure and liquidity reservations for the farmer. function, net cash flow and cash available increased. decreased while total reserved credit increased. The objective Reserved cash These indicate that credit reservation tends to substitute for cash, allowing the farmer to commit more of his cash to production. A likely consequence is the possible extended outreach of the program to small farmers who have not yet been served with loans. Cash only disbursement of loan relaxes the restriction on its use. more versatile loan like moneylender funds will be valued highly. Thus, Ahigher valuation of cash program loan may lead the borrower to preserve such loan—and to protect it by paying back his/her debt. (3) The effect of break-even interest rate just by itself, is a general reduction in the farmer’s welfare, though the lender recovers its lending costs. However, when coupled with increasing credit limit and an all cash disbursement of loan, results showed improvement in the well-being and liquidity position of the farmer as well. Using simple calculations, it was shown that the public sector’s net cost of lending can be reduced by simultaneous increases in interest rate and credit limit.
The use of schools for socioeconomic transformation: a study of Tanzanian secondary school students' beliefs, attitudes and aspirations toward farming and rural life
(University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1983) Mattee, Amon Z
Purpose The purpose of the study was to assess Tanzanian secondary students' beliefs, attitudes and aspirations regarding farming and rural life, and how these relate to school agricultural experiences and to individual and situational characteristics of the students. Methodology Data were secured through a structured question naire administered to a sample of 867 Tanzanian government secondary school students. The dependent variables for the study were students' beliefs, attitudes and aspirations with respect to farming and rural life. The independent variables were the school agricultural learning experiences, the sex, grade and home location of the student, parental education and occupation, and type of farming at home. The analysis tested the relationship between the independent variables and students' beliefs, attitudes and aspirations toward farming and rural life.Ill Findings and Conclusions 1. Students’ beliefs were mainly positive while their attitudes were either positive or neutral, with very few having negative beliefs or attitudes. About one- third of the students aspired to agricultural careers including farming while half of them preferred working in the rural areas. 2. Although students who have had practical school agricultural experiences were more likely to hold positive beliefs, students' beliefs were more strongly related to home background characteristics. Students from rural farm background were more likely to hold positive beliefs. 3. Students who have had practical school agricul tural experiences were more likely to hold positive attitudes. Likewise, male and lower grade students were more likely to hold positive attitudes. Students’ attitudes were not related to home background character istics . 4. Generally, school agriculture seemed to influence students' aspirations toward rural-based agricultural occupations. But as students progressed up the academic hierarchy their aspirations shifted progressively to urban non-agricultural occupations. Also students fromIV less educated rural backgrounds were more Likely to aspire to rural agricultural occupations compared to those from more educated urban backgrounds. 5. Although school agriculture may help in reorienting students’ expectations toward rural and agricultural occupations, its effectiveness is severely limited since schools continue to be the sole basis for recruitment to elite positions and as such continue to socialize students toward more elitist expectations, contrary to policy objectives.
The allocation of resources in the small farm household of dumila, Magole villages and the Kilosa Tanzania: a nutrition based Nonmechanized Mkundi and District, approach.
(University of Illinois, 1984) Gillard-Byers, Thomas Edward
Many people and a couple of organizations have contribu-ted to the successful completion of this research.these individuals contributed time, The African Studies Program and experience, Many of and patience. The Office of International Agriculture provided funds and linkages to those areas which I find most interesting. I want to thank my wife, Nancy, for her continual sup port as we both worked toward this goal. The long days and sleepless nights were always made shorter by her companion- To my son, Nicholas, ship. whom I foolishly told "Ask me if I finished my dissertation today," which he did month in and month out, Without I want to say, "You made it all worthwhile." the continuous support of my family I would have certainly faltered. My sincerest thanks go to Dr. Folke Dovring who guided my work and was available at a moment's notice, for whatever problem I encountered. His suggestions and encouragement led to the completion of this work, of which I am proud. Dr. Dovring's scholarship and humanism will not be forgotten. I also want to thank the other members of my committee, Professors Sam Johnson, Rashid, Charles Stewart, Jean Due and Salim for their constructive suggestions. Dr. Johnson was instrumental in helping with the modelling of the villagesand focused my concentration on issues which had been over-iv looked. Dr. Stewart offered his time and his knowledge of the historical background of Africa. The support which I received from Dr. Stewart and the African Studies Program was continuous and welcomed. Dr. Due provided the source of in formation which proved to be the basis of the dissertation. Funding of this research was almost wholly undertaken by Dr. Due. The time which she spent reviewing this work has re-suited in a better product. Rashid, Thanks are extended to Dr. Department of Economics, to a much clearer manu script. Salim whose suggestions have led Dr. Rashid was willing to put aside important work to consult with me . Others who have helped me complete this dissertation with or without their knowledge are Dr. Earl Ke 1logg, Dr. Eldon Johnson, Dr. John Santas and a number of my peers soon to be doctors, man. Jane Gleason, Timothy Kohnen and Vickie Sig- They have all made it a little bit Special thanks mus t go to Mrs. Constance Hoffmann for the tremendous job she has done typing this manuscript. Last but not least, I want to thank the members of the Department of Agricultural Economics, both secretaries and faculty, their open door policy. for their open door policy.

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